The traditional idea that the increase in the consumption of animal-derived foods, which occurred approximately 2.5 million years ago, was the essential factor in human evolution is being questioned by new research. Paleoanthropologists argue that proteins and fats supplied the energy demands of ancestral brains, which were constantly developing.
However, a recent study published in the journal Science points out that dietary sugars, or glycemic carbohydrates, may have been equally important in sustaining the brain growth of hominids.
Over four million years, the brain of our lineage increased significantly, going from about 300 grams to 1,500 grams. These progressively larger brains, along with a high reproductive rate, demanded calories derived from carbohydrates, which constitute the main source of bodily energy and are not found in meat.
Energy sources such as starch only became available after much of this brain growth, at a time when early humans learned to use fire and cook.
The researchers sought to understand where the small amount of carbohydrates in the hominid diet came from. They discovered that, for the older hominids, similar to chimpanzees, this energy source consisted of sugars present in fruits and honey. It is estimated that, during much of the evolution, more than two-thirds of these individuals' energy came from fruit.
Additionally, the study identified traces of dental caries in fossils of primates and hominids, such as Homo erectus, indicating that their diet included soft and sweet items.
Jennie Brand-Miller, a scientist specializing in human nutrition at the University of Sydney, Australia, and the article's first author, had previously suggested in a 2017 paper that primates consuming fruit had larger brains compared to species that fed exclusively on leaves.
Driven by an interest in human evolution and specifically in changes in dietary patterns, the researcher focused on the diet of hominids over four million years. Initially, Brand-Miller and her team calculated the amount of glucose needed for the function of hominid organs and tissues, including red blood cells and kidneys, in addition to the brain.
Subsequently, they considered reproductive needs, since the fetus and placenta use glucose not only as energy but also as material for forming tissues. The synthesis of nerve cell membranes and DNA and RNA also requires glucose.
With all this information gathered, it was possible to model the diet of hominids, specifically Australopithecus afarensis, taking into account the availability of macronutrients such as proteins, fats, and carbohydrates. It is concluded that these early ancestors had a predominantly vegetarian diet and depended on fruit for millions of years while their brains grew.
A young macaque that managed to escape from a wildlife park in Scotland returned to its enclosure on its own. The Royal Zoological Society of Scotland (RZSS) organized a search for Luca after the animal went missing on Sunday night or early Monday morning from Highland Wildlife Park.
Luca, a five-year-old Japanese macaque, managed to return to its home alone, according to the BBC. RZSS stated that it is unknown exactly how Luca managed to escape.
This occurred against the backdrop of improved fencing and the implementation of various management protocols following an incident involving Honshu, another macaque who had previously escaped. Darren McGarry, head of the animal care department, said that drones equipped with thermal cameras were used to search for Luca. He added that primate group dynamics can be 'very complex,' and it is not uncommon for males to be driven out of the group.
McGarry expressed gratitude to everyone who helped during the search, especially those who supported their teams. He concluded: 'Luca returned home of his own free will, and we are very happy to have brought him back to the park safely.'
In January 2024, another macaque of the same species was on the run for more than five days after escaping from the park, presumably after entering into conflict with other males. That time, Honshu was caught after being spotted in the garden of a nearby house. He was subsequently transferred to Edinburgh Zoo so he could 'start over.'
This Japanese macaque, also known as a snow macaque, reaches the size of an average dog when it becomes an adult.
Abnormal heat presents a serious challenge to the functioning of energy systems. Since air conditioners significantly increase electricity consumption, high temperatures simultaneously create additional loads on both power plants and electrical grids. In Uzbekistan, a record daily consumption of 301.9 million kilowatt-hours was recorded on July 20, and the maximum load on the energy system reached 14.2 GW. Analysis is underway on how extreme heat affects different types of generation, why power units may reduce capacity or temporarily shut down under such conditions, and what measures are being taken to adapt the energy sector to new temperature challenges.
The main reason for increased consumption on hot days is the growing demand for room cooling systems. According to data from the International Energy Agency, global electricity consumption allocated to air conditioning has increased by approximately 50% since 2015. Currently, cooling accounts for about 10% of total annual electricity consumption, but this share in peak load has already reached approximately 30%. The higher the ambient temperature, the greater the load on air conditioners and, consequently, the higher the electricity demand during peak hours.
Thus, heat has a dual impact on the energy system: on one hand, it causes a sharp increase in energy demand, and on the other, it worsens working conditions for some production equipment.
The impact of heat varies significantly depending on the type of generation used. For example, gas turbines can lose some of their potential power due to air heating, as rising temperatures lead to a decrease in the density of air entering the turbine. Simultaneously, the efficiency of solar panels decreases when they overheat.
Power lines and transformers are also subjected to additional thermal stress. Rising temperatures limit the ability of these components to efficiently transmit and distribute electricity, especially when peak demand is reached.
Hydropower faces its own specific risks, as its output directly depends on the water level in rivers and the inflow into reservoirs. In the Global Energy Review 2026, the International Energy Agency points to a decline in hydropower generation in several regions, including Europe, Central and South America. This resulting deficit often had to be compensated by using fossil fuels.
Special attention is paid to water, which is used for cooling power plants. This system is critically important not only for nuclear but also for coal and many gas power units. If a power plant uses water from a body of water or a river, a drop in the water level or its excessive heating can lead to power limitations. Therefore, reports of temporary reduction in output or shutdown of individual power units during heatwaves and low water levels do not always indicate an accident.
The International Atomic Energy Agency acknowledges that extreme weather and environmental conditions can act as factors requiring protective measures, power reduction, or temporary shutdown of a power unit. For instance, if the cooling water temperature becomes too high, it may require reducing the station's power output to comply with established temperature norms. In cases of low water levels, a decrease in the available water volume may also necessitate a reduction in power or a temporary suspension of operation to maintain necessary cooling capacity and ensure safety reserves.
This implies that climatic and hydrological parameters must be considered not only at the stage of station design but throughout its entire operational and modernization period. Nevertheless, nuclear energy retains the status of a controllable source of electricity. The International Energy Agency emphasizes that nuclear power plants are capable of providing large-scale, round-the-clock generation and serving as a complement to renewable energy sources.
For energy systems where the share of solar and wind generation is constantly growing, this is particularly important: nuclear power plants guarantee stable output at times when energy production at solar and wind facilities depends on the time of day and weather conditions.
A nuclear power plant's ability to operate in conditions of extreme temperatures is largely determined by the specific project and the characteristics of the construction site. Alexey Likhachev, head of Rosatom, stated that Russian projects are initially developed taking into account the climatic and natural characteristics of the construction site. He noted that there are northern NPPs (Kolskaya, Bilinskaya, floating), projects for temperate climates, as well as stations and projects designed for hot and arid zones, such as 'El Dabaa' in Egypt. Each such project is created individually based on local conditions—including air temperature, hydrology, wind regimes, water supply features, and seismic activity.
A good example is the experience of the Rostov Nuclear Power Plant. According to Likhachev, in this region, air temperatures can exceed 40 degrees in the summer. After the commissioning of new power units into full operation, it was found that during the hottest periods, the technical water temperature rose above optimal levels. To eliminate this problem, an additional complex of ventilation cooling towers was commissioned in 2021. These cooling towers work together with the main cooling system and forcibly enhance the heat exchange process during severe heat, allowing the power unit to continue operating without reducing power and maintaining stable output. A similar complex is currently being built for another power unit.
For Uzbekistan, where summer electricity consumption peaks regularly set new records, the issue of energy system stability in the face of extreme heat is becoming increasingly significant. High temperatures simultaneously increase the load on the entire system and place higher demands on the operation of generating capacities, networks, and cooling systems. Therefore, when creating new energy facilities, it is crucial to consider not only their nominal capacity but also the actual climatic conditions of the site, the availability of water, and the equipment's ability to function during periods of maximum demand.
However, heat itself does not provide a definitive answer as to which electricity generation technology is more reliable. Rather, extreme temperatures demonstrate the level of preparedness of a specific power plant and the entire energy system to operate under maximum load, as well as the degree to which possible climate risks were taken into account during the initial design phase.
