Doctor of Historical Sciences Alexander Meshcheryakov, in his book 'Nameless Japan: The Demographic, Historical, and Human Dimension,' analyzes how population size shaped Japan's historical process and also examines changes in the historical psychology of the Japanese people. This book was included in the 'Enlightener' award list for 2026. It discusses topics such as the fight against infanticide and the transformation of traditional marriage customs during the Meiji era.
During the Meiji period, the country's population increased significantly, and the birth rate rose from 24.1 per mille to 33.3 per mille. The general atmosphere of change contributed to the breakdown of established behavioral patterns, providing younger sons with more opportunities to start their own families. Although the principle of primogeniture remained important, and parents continued to reluctantly share property, the abolition of social classes eliminated the need to follow ancestral occupations. Thanks to active urbanization and labor market development, younger peasant descendants could leave the land and settle in cities.
The gradual eradication of infanticide led to a decrease in the gender imbalance observed in Tokugawa society; however, achieving the modern norm where there are more women than men only occurred in 1937. The reduction in social restrictions increased freedom of movement and communication, which facilitated finding a spouse. Furthermore, the new views of European-educated doctors regarding the harm of consanguineous marriages (which were common in Tokugawa Japan) prompted people to seek partners outside their social circle and locality.
An 1889 article in the journal 'Societies for the Improvement of Customs in Great Japan' ('Dainippon Fudzoku Kaiyōkai') pointed out the medical risk of consanguineous unions and called for married couples to be located not within a narrow circle of relatives in the village or a limited region, but across all of Japan—for example, a man from Satsuma to marry a woman from the north, or a woman from Shikoku to marry a man from Niigata.
Sodomy, which was common among samurai and Buddhist monks and was not condemned during the Tokugawa period, began to be viewed as an 'uncivilized' phenomenon characteristic of 'backward' peoples under the influence of European information. Buddhist clergy were also included among those who married; their exact number during the Tokugawa regime is unknown, but some researchers suggest there were between 200,000 and 250,000. All these factors led to a significant increase in the number of marriages.
Technological progress, including rapidly developing railway and sea transport, contributed to increased mobility and the possibility of long-distance travel to find a partner. Mass media, such as newspapers, also provided young women with new forms of freedom and public visibility, acting not only as a source of news but also as a strong educational tool. Since state ideology emphasized the family as the foundation of the state, the press actively promoted family values, shaping the idea of marriage as a necessary condition for a full life.
Although the number of children in families in the new conditions hardly changed (around five), the total number of births increased due to the rise in marriage rates, with the main growth occurring in the second half of the Meiji period. Closer to the end of the shogunate, authorities at the domain level attempted to stimulate fertility, achieving partial success. Despite the Meiji Emperor lacking pregnancy journals or child allowances, the population grew rapidly. The government facilitated this by removing obstacles to marriage, which proved sufficient for population growth. Since life expectancy did not increase, the increase was ensured solely by fertility, which depended both on the number of marriages and the government's fight against infanticide, motivated not so much by a desire to increase the number of Japanese people, but by a desire to avoid criticism from Europeans regarding the immorality of the Japanese elite.
The ban on infanticide was introduced in the first year of the Meiji reign (1868) and was sometimes accompanied by the establishment of Western-style shelters. In Kōchi Prefecture on Shikoku Island, local activists investigated the causes of infanticide: people accused large families of being unable to provide for the children's future; having two sons and one daughter was considered ideal. Another reason was the desire to avoid large expenses for a birth feast and the stigmatization of childbirth by older people. Pregnancy and childbirth rendered a woman unfit for heavy labor, and giving birth to one's own child could worsen the situation of an adopted child. Having several sons led to the division of inheritance and the impoverishment of the main family. Additionally, people avoided giving birth in 'unlucky' calendar years. Studies showed that the death of a child was carried out by midwives and the mother herself; most often, the body was buried under the floor of the dwelling.
In society, aversion to infanticide as a practice inconsistent with a 'civilized' people intensified. Ideological considerations related to Japan being a unique family state headed by the Emperor also played a role. Midwives with modern education asserted that killing any Japanese child was equivalent to killing the Emperor's own child. Despite official efforts, infanticide did not disappear instantly. Starting in 1886, midwives were required to report all cases of stillbirths, which revealed their numbers to be significantly higher than European figures (the norm in Europe was 3–4%, whereas in the early 20th century, in a third of Japan's prefectures, the figure exceeded 10%), indicating hidden infanticide.
Matsuoka (later Yanagita) Kunio, who became a renowned ethnologist, settled in the latter half of the 1880s near a physician practicing in Fukawa (Ibaraki Prefecture). Local residents often approached him to obtain a certificate for a stillborn infant, although in reality, it concerned infanticide. At the Bodhisattva Jizō temple, where the souls of murdered infants were venerated, Kunio was deeply impressed by the anti-infanticide scene depicting a woman strangling a newborn, next to whom stood the Bodhisattva Jizō shedding tears.
Japanese writer Yasushige Hanaiaka stated in an interview with CGTN that Japan's inability to fully grapple with its military past, coupled with growing historical ignorance among the younger generation, constitutes a real crisis for the country.
This discussion took place against a backdrop of several events, including the official launch of the National Agency for Japanese Reconstruction on July 31, 2026. This date coincides with the designation number of the Imperial Japanese Army's Unit 731, which was involved in bacteriological warfare and conducting human experiments in China during World War II. Regardless of whether this is a coincidence, this confluence of circumstances has drawn attention.
A more significant aspect remains Japan's ongoing inability to fully confront its military past, especially given how conservative politicians are pushing for constitutional amendments and expanding military capabilities.
