A surname can reveal many aspects of a family's history and even hidden family secrets. However, 'descriptive' surnames, whose meaning seems obvious, should not always be taken literally. For example, the descendants of Durakovs are not necessarily famous for stupidity, and Nekrasovs did not receive their name because of their ancestor's ugliness.
The emergence of surnames perceived as 'descriptive' has its own peculiarities. Although this term is often associated with classical literature, where the essence of a hero becomes clear from his first appearance (such as Tikhokradov or Trudolyubov), any surname can acquire such a property when analyzed by historians and linguists.
Researchers can establish some information about ancestors. For instance, the great-grandfather of Plotnikovs was a carpenter, while Kuznetsovs or Kovalevs were blacksmiths. Some surnames, such as Zyryanov, Chudinov, and Permyakov, have Finno-Ugric roots, whereas Tatarinovs or Bashkirovs are Turkic. Others, like Vetluginykh or Vetluzhskykh, originate from Vetluga, and the Polyakov or Lyakhov families are connected to Poland.
Among surnames derived from nicknames, many indicate physical characteristics (Khromykh, Kosykh, Shcherbatov, Malyshkin, Chernov, Belyakov) or character traits, manner of speech, and behavior (Boltunovs, Durakovs, Krikunovs). Writers often use the latter, exaggerating them in vivid form.
Such surnames were popular during the Enlightenment and in works of classicism. In Fonvizin's 'Immaturity,' there are Skotinin, Prostakova, and Vralman. In the 19th century, this device continued with Griboyedov (Molchalin and Skalozub) and Gogol (Sobakevich, Lyapkin-Tyapkin, Skvoznik-Dmukhanovsky); later authors work more subtly.
Yuri Olesha, in his book 'Not a Day Without a Line,' noted Ostrovsky's mastery in using surnames. He cited Meluzov as an example, describing him as a small man in love with an actress kidnapped by the rich, emphasizing the harmony in the name. He also mentioned the merchant Velikatov, who, despite being a boor, possessed a charm that attracted women.
Olesha also analyzed the surname Tugin from 'The Last Victim,' where 'Tuga' is associated with sorrow, comparing it to Pechalina but preferring Tugin. The seducer in the play was called Dulchin, which combines the meaning of 'dula' (deceiver) and 'dulche' (sweet).
In addition, surnames can contain complex compound references, as in postmodern literature, or serve solely to create a comic effect, as with Chekhov, Zoshchenko, or Bulgakov.
Historically, Christian names, from which surnames later developed, served as a kind of amulet, as people relied on the help of saints. In pre-Christian times, infants were often given protective names. They might be named after strong animals, such as Wolf, Bear, or Elk, to invoke the beast to protect the child. A more sophisticated method was assigning a deceptive name with negative semantics to ward off evil spirits. Parents could be named Nezhdan, Nekras, Bezobraz, Nekhorosh, or Neustroy, explains philologist Maria Rut. Names like Neela (denoting an inattentive or unlucky person) and Duras (ugly and stupid) belong to this group. Although surnames derived from these names later did not carry a protective function, they nevertheless became established.
Colonel Obernibesov in the Russian army of the 18th century is an example of a surname that still reminds us of the ancient practice of using 'bad' names to protect against misfortunes and dark forces. Old documents contain entries such as 'witness Durak testified' or 'by order of the late husband and my master Negodyay, I grant the village to the monastery...'. In the village of Eryominka in the Tambov region, students from the regional pedagogical institute discovered eighteen families with the surname Durakov.
It should be noted that the surnames Nekrasov or Bezobrazov did not necessarily originate from protective names; they might have been based on nicknames received by the person in the community. Sometimes the descendants of Durakovs and Bezobrazovs changed their surname, and sometimes they considered the surname part of the family heritage and felt it should not be abandoned.
For modern people, the origin of an 'offensive' surname is often not obvious, and it ceases to be considered descriptive. For example, few people know that Tatishchev derives from the word 'tatishche' (thief), and the surname Naryshkin is based on the Russian root -ryg-, the same as in the word 'rygat'.
Seminary surnames, describing character or motivating, also had their significance. They were given to students of theological schools, seminaries, and academies instead of hereditary ones or in their absence. These surnames are considered artificial because they are not related to family history. They were distinguished by a special elaborate nature: for a student's diligence, one might be named Blagonravov, Lyubomudrov, Brilliantov, or Aretinsky (from Ancient Greek ἀρετή, meaning 'virtuous'). Conversely, for bad behavior, the surname Vetrinsky could be given. Furthermore, a 'good' surname could be obtained in advance, such as Sobrievsky (from Latin sōbrius — sober), which was intended to protect the student from drunkenness.
Pseudonyms and artificial surnames were sometimes used to conceal nationality, requiring the new surname to be not only beautiful and resonant but also somewhat 'deceptive.' George de Milleville adopted the surname Millar because noble origin was not valued, and Fanny Feldman became Faina Ranevskaya in honor of the heroine of Chekhov's 'The Cherry Orchard.'
Artistic and literary pseudonyms were descriptive because they reflected the values of that era. Boris Slutsky, in his poem 'Pseudonyms,' notes that the choice of the pseudonym Vesely or Gorkiy reflects the worldview of the time. He emphasizes that the era allowed the surname Besposhchadny but did not permit Beznadyezhny, noting how people rejected the 'sad rag' of their real surnames.
After the Revolution of 1917, when changing surnames became permitted, many 'beautiful' artificial surnames appeared. Soplyakovy and Navozovy transformed into 'revolutionary' Oktyabrskikh and Bastionov. Illegitimate noble children also received artificial surnames. In one case, an illegitimate son of the Trubetskoy family became Betsky, Golitsyn became Litsin, and Rumyantsev became Umyantsev. Other surnames were also used, such as Alexander Herzen's, whose father was Ivan Alekseevich Yakovlev, and the writer himself bore a surname derived from the German Herz (heart). Sometimes anagrams were used (Sabir from De Ribas) or place names (Bobrinsky from the village Bobriki).
The names and surnames of street urchins and foundlings, which appeared in large numbers especially after the Great Patriotic War, could testify to the circumstances of their discovery or to the imagination of the educators. Toponyms refer to when a child was given a name or surname based on the place of finding. In Alexandra Supéranskaya and Anna Suslova's book, there is a case where a baby found near two North Ossetian settlements, Elkhotovo and Arkhonskaya, was given the name Elkhota Arkhonskaya. Sometimes the focus narrowed to Zadorozhny or Pridorozhny.
The surname of the person who found the child, or the director of the orphanage, was also used. Graduates of the Moscow Orphanage could receive surnames related to donors, such as Sheremetevsky (in honor of Count Sheremetev) or Gomburtsev (in honor of Princess Anastasia of Hesse-Gomberg).
Occupation also influenced the surname. Vladimir Maksimov, in the article 'Formation of Russian Surnames in the 20th-21st Centuries,' cites the example of a foundling who received the surname Avtostroev because his new mother worked at the Avtostroy factory, and he was given the name Valery Pavlovich in honor of Chkalov. Orphans of the war generation could receive surnames such as Orden, Soldatov, Pekhota, or Pulemetov.
Reference to social status was evident in surnames such as Sirotkin, Sirotin, Naydenov, Neizvestny. Less obvious were Bogdanov (child given by God) or Orfanov (from Greek ὀρφανός — 'orphan'), which were given to orphaned pupils of theological seminaries. Anton Chekhov, in 'Sakhalin Island,' mentions a large number of Bogdanovs and Bespalovs in Sakhalin, and among the vagrants, the name Ivan and the surname Nepomnyashchiy are often found.
Individual traits could also determine a child's surname: a dark-eyed and dark-haired child might be named Chernov or Chernukhin, and a blonde—Svetlov or Belov.
In orphanages, children could be given simple and common surnames, such as Ivanov, Smirnov, or Fedorov. Vladimir Maksimov tells of a boy who lost his parents and eventually became Yuri Yuryevich Yuriev.
The circumstances of the finding often determined the surname: day of the week, month, or season (Subbotin, Zimin, Martov). Sometimes the surname indicated details, such as the blooming of cherry trees (Cheremokhin) or frost (Morozov). The book 'On Russian Surnames' contains a note that the basis of a surname could even be the pattern of the diaper in which the foundling was wrapped: Zaichikov or Yelochkin. However, talking to Zaichikov, no one would likely guess the real meaning of his surname.
Many surnames originated from words popular in a certain era and could undergo reinterpretation over centuries, making it impossible to make a definitive judgment about the bearer's origin. A serf could be named aristocratic, and a Kuznetsov could be both the son of a blacksmith and his worker. The nickname Pop could give rise to the surnames Popov and Popkov, which were often borne by peasants and Cossacks. Also, Belyakov or Syrokvash may not always mean a fair-haired child, and today Svetlana can be dark-haired and tanned.
The surname Nadkin does not necessarily mean that the descendant is Nadka; it could also be given to a person who constantly said 'We need to do X.' Lomonosov might have had a large nose, and the surname could come from the plant lomonos. A healthy person could be ironically called Trostina.
Although descriptive surnames can evoke interest, rejection, or amusement, they are not as simple as they seem. Behind them lies a long history of the family, the lineage, the circumstances of the ancestors' birth, or the traits of a bygone era.
A peasant boy Stenka Kosoy, who attended theological school, could become Stepan Lyubomudrov for diligence or Buyanovsky for mischief. A new surname could be given to someone by chance, while others required significant effort to obtain.