The Stennis Space Center in Mississippi, USA, houses exhibits including rockets, space modules, and spacesuits used in the first manned lunar mission. This center is one of the largest scientific laboratories, surrounded by an extensive buffer zone of about one hundred fifty thousand acres of dense forest.
Stennis Center is a repository of humanity's greatest space achievements. Visitors can see launch observation platforms and countdown clocks. Although it is quiet today, the massive F-1 engine from the Saturn V rocket, which once could reach temperatures of 3000 degrees Celsius, was the source of power that launched the rocket into orbit and delivered humans to the Moon.
The night of July 20, 1969, marked Neil Armstrong's step onto the surface of the Moon, after which Buzz Aldrin and Michael Collins landed on the Moon and continued orbiting in the command module. Although the Apollo 11 mission launched from the Kennedy Space Center in Florida, the foundation of this success was laid precisely at the Stennis Center in Mississippi.
It was here that the powerful F-1 engines of the Saturn V's first stage were repeatedly tested at full power to eliminate any errors in space. Five Rocketdyne F-1 engines propelled the Saturn V rocket to an altitude of about 70 km and a speed of 9800 kilometers per hour in approximately two and a half minutes. The S1c first stage of the Saturn V rocket was assembled in New Orleans and transported to the Stennis Center by river on special cargo ships.
To test the engines, NASA acquired about 13 thousand acres of land, creating a total acoustic buffer belt of about 125 thousand acres. It is hard to imagine how this area shook from the roar of the most powerful rocket engines. Currently, a sign reading 'Testing in Progress' is installed at the test site, located about 9 kilometers from the engine, indicating ongoing rocket engine tests.
While visitors could previously view the test sites and rocket stands through tours, access to these areas for the general public is temporarily closed due to heightened safety requirements and the sensitivity of technical operations. Stennis carries a legacy not only of the Apollo missions; future spaceflights are also being prepared here, such as testing RS-25 engines for the Artemis-II mission. Thus, the Stennis Center remains a pulsating heart of space operations, connecting the history of Apollo with the future of Artemis six decades later.
During the Apollo program, the Stennis Center tested 27 stages of the Saturn V rocket. Each such test firing was preparation for a historic mission that wrote the most memorable chapter in human history. The story of reaching the Moon began not at the launchpad, but through countless tests where engineers overcame all difficulties.
The Saturn V rocket stood 363 feet tall, equivalent to a 36-story building, and weighed about 2.8 million kilograms, comparable to the weight of approximately 400 elephants. For the launch of this giant rocket, five F1 engines were installed on the first stage of the Saturn V, generating a total thrust of about 7.5 million pounds. One such engine weighed approximately 8400 kilograms and was an engineering marvel measuring 18 feet high and 12.5 feet wide.
In the 1960s, the Saturn V was not just a rocket but the most ambitious engineering project of its time, costing about $18.5 billion USD, which corresponds to approximately $1.7–2 billion today. This project was made possible by the joint work of about four hundred thousand scientists, engineers, and technicians under NASA's leadership, as well as the cooperation of companies such as Boeing, North American Aviation, Douglas Aircraft, and Rocketdyne. The team of Marshall Space Flight Center and Wernher von Braun played a key role in realizing this dream.
At the Stennis Center, one can feel the atmosphere of the Apollo mission. Interactive displays, models, and documentaries demonstrate how a journey that started as an idea led to the creation of the rocket, its complex tests, and finally, the first step of a human on the Moon. The spacesuit prepared for Neil Armstrong and real moon rocks brought back from the Moon bring this history to life right before your eyes. This space center not only preserves the history of astronautics but also inspires future generations toward scientific aspirations and dreams.
Internal storage refers to the permanent memory of a device, whether it is a computer or a cell phone. Its main function is to preserve the operating system, installed applications, and the user's personal files. This type of memory ensures that all media, documents, and software remain saved and protected even after the device is turned off.
Technologically, storage works by recording information on integrated circuits or magnetic disks, which allows the system to locate and read data efficiently. This agility contributes to the fast loading of daily tools and maintains the stable operation of the equipment.
Historically, memories have transitioned from traditional HDDs, which prioritized large capacity at a lower cost, to much faster chip-based solutions. Currently, SSD and NVMe units are prominent due to their remarkable data reading and writing speeds.
Conceptually, internal storage serves as the digital foundation of the device, providing the necessary space to run the operating system and keep applications updated, which ensures stability and speed. Furthermore, it stores personal data, such as photos, documents, and offline media. By managing data writing and cache files, this memory helps prevent crashes and makes daily use smoother.
There are several physical memories used in modern devices. The HDD (Hard Disk Drive) is an old mechanical model that uses rotating magnetic disks, making it an economical option for large volumes, but it is slower and susceptible to physical damage. The SSD (Solid-State Drive) employs memory chips without moving parts, resulting in faster boot times, greater durability against drops, and silent operation.
An evolution of SSDs is the NVMe SSD, which connects directly to the high-speed lanes of the motherboard, providing maximum speed for games and complex programs. Other types include eMMC, a simple soldered chip common in entry-level devices because it is economical, despite having moderate transfer rates. UFS is a flash memory standard used in mid-range and high-end smartphones, offering very high transfer rates for immediate application opening. Finally, internal ROM is a fixed memory that contains only basic startup instructions, being completely protected and inaccessible for storing user files.
Internal storage operates at the hardware level, converting and saving photos, applications, and systems into binary code through electronic circuits. While older devices used HDDs with disk recording, current devices use flash memory, which retains electrical charges in tiny cells to store data. An integrated controller organizes this content into logical blocks, indicating to the operating system where to retrieve or save each file, ensuring near-instant access.
It is important to differentiate storage from RAM: while RAM manages momentary tasks, storage preserves information long-term. The system also runs automatic cleaning routines to prevent performance degradation over time. The speed at which the device starts up or loads files depends on the synergy between the chip speed and the controller's efficiency.
Capacity ranges vary according to usage. From 32 GB to 64 GB, we find entry-level options for light use on cell phones and tablets. The range of 128 GB to 256 GB is considered the ideal point for most users, allowing them to install many games and photos. For advanced users and content creators, there are options from 512 GB to 1 TB, suitable for 4K videos. High-performance standards, such as 2 TB or more, are intended for workstations and advanced PCs.
Yes, when storage is saturated, performance drops because the system cannot create temporary files or manage the cache properly. This lack of space results in slowness and failures in data processing and application updates. Experts advise always keeping between 10% and 15% free space to allow cleaning algorithms to work correctly and maintain device agility.
The possibility of increasing storage depends on the device. In smartphones, the physical memory is usually soldered onto the motherboard, although some models still accept microSD cards. In computers and laptops, the hardware is usually modular, facilitating replacement with larger SSDs or HDDs.
Regarding formatting, it is possible, but the method differs. On PCs, cleaning can be done through the disk manager or during a clean system reinstallation. On cell phones, the procedure is factory reset, as the structure is locked to protect vital data, erasing the entire user partition.
Partitioning the physical memory is also feasible, but with restrictions. On PCs, the disk manager allows separating the operating system from personal files. On cell phones, partitions are locked from the factory, and changing these divisions requires advanced firmware modifications, which carries a high risk of permanent device damage.
Internal storage is the physical memory integrated into the motherboard, essential for running the operating system and quickly loading apps, serving as the fixed base for all data. In contrast, external storage, such as USB drives or external HDDs, is a removable device, ideal for backups and transferring large files.
Finally, the distinction between storage memory and RAM memory lies in its temporal function. Storage memory is permanent, keeping data long-term even without power. RAM memory, being volatile, acts as a temporary workspace, containing only the data and applications currently in use, and is erased when the system is shut down.
Uzbekistan holds a significant position in global nuclear science, as evidenced by the work of the Institute of Nuclear Physics of the Academy of Sciences of Uzbekistan (IYAF). IYAF specialists produce over 80% of the world's supply of iodine-125 radioisotope, which is widely used in modern medicine. The scientific school established about seven decades ago continues to influence not only Uzbekistan but also global science.
This year, IYAF celebrates its 70th anniversary. For this key scientific institution, it is a time to summarize achievements: from launching the first research reactor and forming its own school of radiochemists to creating radiopharmaceuticals, developing unique nuclear technologies, sterilizing medical devices, and participating in the establishment of Uzbekistan's atomic industry.
A correspondent from Podrobno.uz interviewed the director of IYAF, Academician Ilham Sadikov, to learn about the institute's results, the reasons why some of its work remains unnoticed by the public, and the factors determining the future of atomic science in the country.
Sadikov emphasized the uniqueness of the situation at the institute, noting the presence of a strong school of radiochemists. He stated that IYAF produces 80% of the world's iodine-125 volume, supplying nearly the entire world with this radioisotope. Furthermore, the institute is responsible for more than half of the world's production of phosphorus-32 and phosphorus-33. According to Sadikov, the extremely high quality of the products, such as the purest iodine-125, places them above competitors whose analogues lag behind in purity by ten thousand times.
The Institute of Nuclear Physics was founded in 1956, and in 1959, a 2 MW VVR-SM research reactor was launched on its grounds, which was later upgraded to 10 MW. This transition allowed IYAF to engage not only in fundamental research but also to develop applied fields, including the production of radioisotopes, radiopharmaceuticals, as well as materials and services for medicine, industry, and security.
Today, IYAF serves as the largest research center of its kind in Central Asia. Six unique nuclear physics facilities operate on its territory, along with three subsidiary enterprises: GP 'Radiopreparat', a design bureau with a factory, and the Republican Radioactive Waste Storage Center.
The most well-known area of IYAF's activity is radiopharmaceuticals—the creation of drugs and substances based on radioisotopes necessary for high-precision diagnosis and treatment of serious diseases, including oncology. These technologies are an integral part of modern nuclear medicine.
Annually, IYAF brings one or two new radiopharmaceuticals to the market. The institute produces over 60 radiopharmaceutical drugs and substances based on 15 radioisotopes, about 40 of which are ready for direct application. Key among these radioisotopes are iodine-125, phosphorus-32, phosphorus-33, technetium-99m, iodine-131, and lutetium-177.
The institute's work is conducted both domestically and for export. Over 90% of all products are sent abroad, to approximately 15 countries in Europe, Asia, North, and South America. However, the situation with finished medicines is more complex than with raw materials. Many foreign partners are interested in purchasing finished drugs due to their high quality and low price, but they face a problem: drugs produced in Uzbekistan can only be used within the country because applying them in other states requires a long and expensive registration process in each of those countries. Therefore, foreign companies often purchase substances, while producing finished medicines themselves.
Domestically, the demand for these drugs is also growing. According to Sadikov, over the past four years, the supply of radiopharmaceuticals to clinics in Uzbekistan has increased fivefold, indicating the development of national nuclear medicine.
A separate success for IYAF has been the production of lutetium-177, which began in 2017. Initially, it was exported, and then scientists began releasing finished drugs for the domestic market. In 2022, the first drug based on lutetium-177 for treating prostate cancer metastases was registered in Uzbekistan, and later a drug for neuroendocrine tumor therapy was developed.
Current demand for this drug significantly exceeds the institute's production capacity; customers request volumes tens of times greater than current levels (up to 40 times). Scientists note that even a full conversion of the VVR-SM reactor to lutetium production would physically not allow reaching such volumes. The advantage of IYAF's product remains its high purity and specific activity, which increases interest in it on the global market.
Among the less known areas of the institute's work is the radiation sterilization of medical devices (syringes, gloves, etc.) using electron accelerators. Sadikov reported that this is the only production site of its kind in the country, operating almost continuously. The advantage of the method is that the devices are sterilized in sealed packaging without opening, heating, or using chemical gases.
Another little-known area is neutron radiography and tomography. A special facility was launched in May 2020. According to Sadikov, there are three such facilities in the post-Soviet space (in Russia, Kazakhstan, and Uzbekistan), but only the one in Uzbekistan is actually operational. This method allows for the examination of the internal contents of an object without destroying it, which is critically important for both metals and complex mechanisms, as well as for archaeological finds previously studied at IYAF.
A stable source of revenue for IYAF is the enhancement of natural stones. Using the institute's technologies, colorless topaz acquires colors ranging from light blue to dark blue after irradiation, increasing its market value by 5–30 times. This is an export service that generates stable income.
Cobalt-57 is also produced at the U-150 cyclotron, accounting for about 20% of global production, and this product is also exported. Additionally, the institute develops installations for water purification, desalination, and disinfection of various configurations. A significant portion of the components of these installations is localized: casings are manufactured in local factories, while sorbents and internal elements are created in the institute's laboratories. Furthermore, IYAF produces silver nanoparticle solutions for disinfection in the water, food, perfume, paint, soap, and cream industries.
The VVR-SM research reactor, launched in 1959 and repeatedly modernized, is the core of IYAF's production and research system. Sadikov considers it one of the most efficient reactors of its type in the world. After reaching a power of 10 MW, it operated for 5–6 thousand hours per year, and in the 1990s and 2000s, for over 6,5 thousand hours over almost 11 months without interruption, which surprises foreign colleagues whose productivity rate was 1.5–2 times lower.
The reactor's durability is due to both economic and human factors. Since reactor fuel is very expensive, the state ensures its procurement, which prevents unnecessary consumption. However, the institute does not receive budgetary funding for the purchase of equipment and materials, so it generates all funds for the reactor's operation itself. These revenues are used for equipment renewal and modernization.
Currently, VVR-SM uses low-enriched uranium fuel. Since November 2009, the reactor has switched to IRT-4M fuel with a uranium-235 enrichment level of 19.7%, supplied by the fuel company TVEL (a division of Rosatom). In 2022, TVEL and IYAF signed an agreement to supply modified nuclear fuel for VVR-SM, which will extend the fuel campaign compared to standard IRT-4M cassettes. The first tests of these experimental fuel assemblies are planned to be conducted at this reactor.
Several years ago, the reactor underwent inspection with local experts and IAEA specialists. The research commission concluded that the installation is capable of functioning safely for another 50 thousand hours before replacement is required.
Astronomers may have found the first record of a binary system where both component stars ended their lives in supernova explosions. This discovery was detailed in a study published in the journal Nature Communications this Tuesday (21).
The research focused on two vestiges of nearby stellar explosions: IC 443, known as the Jellyfish Nebula, and G189.6+3.3. Both objects are located approximately 6 thousand light-years from Earth, in the direction of the Gemini constellation. Scientists cross-referenced data from various observatories to determine if the proximity was merely a celestial coincidence or if there was a common origin.
The collected evidence strongly suggests that these remnants originate from stars that were born together in a binary arrangement. The study was led by Miltiadis Michailidis, a researcher at Stanford University, who investigated the connection between the prominent IC 443 and its less visible neighbor, G189.6+3.3. For many years, the second structure remained inconspicuous due to its proximity to one of the galaxy's most studied nebulae.
To reach their conclusions, scientists integrated over 16 years of observations made by the NASA's Fermi space telescope, along with previous information obtained in light spectra such as X-rays, radio, ultraviolet, and visible light. The data revealed that the two supernova remnants are interacting with the same interstellar hydrogen cloud. This fact indicates that the objects are spatially close, with an estimated separation between their explosion centers of 30 to 50 light-years.
The team calculated that the probability of two unrelated supernova remnants appearing so close would be about one in a thousand. This result strengthens the theory that the objects arose from the same massive star system. Estimates indicate that the explosion that generated G189.6+3.3 occurred before the formation of IC 443. The first star would have exploded between 20 thousand and 110 thousand years ago, while the second supernova occurred approximately 8 thousand or 9 thousand years ago.
Although they originated from the same system, the two stars did not need to die simultaneously, as binary star pairs can follow distinct evolutionary paths, resulting in deaths separated by thousands of years. To validate this scenario, researchers ran simulations on one million binary systems. The results of these simulations demonstrated that pairs of massive stars are capable of generating two supernovae separated by tens of thousands of years, maintaining close traces in space. The discovery may help scientists better understand the evolution of extremely massive stars when they are part of double systems. If the link between IC 443 and G189.6+3.3 is confirmed by new observations, the pair could serve as a natural laboratory to study the complete cycle of these systems.
