Paleogeneticists analyzed DNA extracted from the remains of ancient people buried on the island of Gotland during the Neolithic period. The research established that several individuals living at different times suffered from the plague. One of these cases dates back to approximately 3490–3110 BCE, making it one of the earliest recorded globally.
The plague is known as one of the most devastating infectious diseases in human history, claiming millions of lives. The most famous outbreaks include the Justinianic Plague and the Black Death, which occurred in the Middle Ages. Although modern people face this threat, the scale of such epidemics today is significantly different.
Thanks to the study of ancient DNA, scientists have concluded over the past decade that human contact with the plague bacillus (Yersinia pestis) occurred long before medieval pandemics. Genetic data indicates that prehistoric inhabitants of Eurasia were infected with this infection more than five thousand years ago. Confirmations of this were found through the analysis of remains from Lake Baikal and the Baltic region, as well as in other regions, including Germany and Scandinavia.
A team of scientists from the UK, Mexico, Turkey, France, and Sweden, led by Matthias Jakobsson from Uppsala University, focused on DNA taken from ancient residents of Gotland. The main focus was on farmers and herders of the Funnel Beaker culture (approximately 4000–2800 BCE) and hunter-gatherers/fishermen of the Pit Pottery culture (approximately 3300–2300 BCE), who coexisted on the island for five hundred years during the Middle Neolithic. Additionally, the genome of one late Neolithic individual (around 2030–1890 BCE) was sequenced.
According to geneticists, the late Neolithic individual was a male and represents the earliest known case in Gotland to possess a steppe ancestral component associated with carriers of the Yamnaya archaeological culture. Researchers also found long homozygous segments in a representative of the Funnel Beaker culture, indicating kinship between his parents (e.g., cousins).
The search for ancient pathogen DNA generated the greatest scientific interest. Analysis of samples from 32 people from Gotland showed that the only late Neolithic male in the sample was infected with the plague bacterium. Furthermore, he was also found to be infected with the bacterium Y. enterocolitica, the causative agent of enteric yersiniosis. A similar co-infection was previously identified when studying ancient remains from mainland Sweden.
Although the DNA of the plague bacillus was presumably present in the remains of four other individuals, confirming this proved more difficult than in the case of the late Neolithic male. Nevertheless, scientists concluded that various strains of this bacterium circulated repeatedly in Gotland during the Neolithic era. The earliest probable case of infection dates back to the Ansärva megalithic tomb, whose remains date to the period 3490–3110 BCE.
Previous studies have shown that not only humans but also dogs could contract the plague bacillus in Gotland. DNA analysis of about fifteen animals revealed an infected specimen. This pet of Pit Pottery culture carriers lived at least 4500 years ago, and its burial dates back to the 2nd century BCE.
Geneticists studied the DNA of two adult individuals buried together in the 2nd century BCE in the Fanagoria crypt. It was determined that these remains belonged to an elderly man and woman from different populations. The man had genetic proximity to ancient populations of Asia Minor and the Middle East, while the woman descended from a population presumed to have lived in Eastern or Northern Europe.
The search for ultimate efficiency in the aerospace and industrial sectors is beginning a transition from traditional methods to the realm of quantum technologies. Rolls-Royce has announced a partnership with Quantinuum, Riverlane, and EPCC—the UK's National Supercomputing Centre located at the University of Edinburgh—to explore how fault-tolerant quantum computing can transform the design of complex components such as gas turbines.
Modeling the behavior of fluids inside a turbine represents one of the most serious challenges in advanced engineering. As models become increasingly detailed, the required computational power grows to the point where it overwhelms even the most powerful modern supercomputers. According to the companies, the goal of this multi-year partnership is to overcome this computational barrier by using quantum computers alongside classical machines.
Each participant contributes to the overall task. Quantinuum provides access to its quantum systems and software environment. Rolls-Royce contributes through industrial use cases and domain expertise. Riverlane focuses on quantum error correction, which is a critical step for ensuring accurate results at scale. EPCC is responsible for the integration between the classical and quantum worlds and possesses expertise in supercomputing.
In practice, the group plans to test core computational blocks on Quantinuum's Helios quantum computer, which the company positions as the world's most accurate commercial quantum processor. It will also be assessed how these algorithms can scale in future systems named Sol and Apollo. The work does not start from scratch: Rolls-Royce, Riverlane, and EPCC have been developing hybrid algorithms for almost five years, relying so far on classical emulators. The agreement with Quantinuum marks the transition of these experiments, previously limited to simulations, onto real quantum hardware.
The main focus is on creating hybrid algorithms capable of performing simulations that are currently computationally impossible. The long-term goal is to achieve the so-called 'teraQuOp' era—a British objective to create machines capable of performing trillions of error-free operations. Lee continues to assert: 'Developing applications takes several years, and if we want to take advantage of teraQuOp devices, we need to start now.'
The concept of a DAO, or Decentralized Autonomous Organization, often raises questions among those beginning to familiarize themselves with the crypto community. Although the term may seem complex, the DAO concept is quite simple. Essentially, it is a mechanism that allows people to organize activities, make decisions, and manage finances without the involvement of any central authority.
DAOs operate based on code and participant consensus, rather than decisions made by CEOs, managers, or boards of directors. They can be envisioned as a global organization operating on the internet where rules are transparent, members vote on every decision, and no single entity holds absolute power.
DAO stands for Decentralized Autonomous Organization. To fully grasp this meaning, one must examine three core components. The word 'Decentralized' signifies the absence of a single central body; the organization has no headquarters and is governed by code deployed on computers worldwide. 'Autonomous' implies independent existence, as the organization functions based on pre-set code, and transaction approval does not require human manager endorsement.
The third component, 'Organization,' represents a collective of people united by a common goal. Such a decentralized group can be formed to develop a new protocol or manage a venture fund. Thus, this type of organization is a community project managed by smart contracts on the blockchain, which establish the rules for decision-making, fund management, and member interaction.
Unlike traditional companies whose charters are stored in archives, the crypto entity of a DAO exists directly on the blockchain. There are two key aspects of its operation. Firstly, there are smart contracts, which form the foundation of any decentralized autonomous organization. These protocols are code that automatically triggers specific actions when predefined conditions are met, eliminating the possibility of manipulation.
For instance, a community could program its smart contract so that funds amounting to 10 ETH are released only if 60% of members vote 'Yes' on a network expansion proposal. If the 60% threshold is reached, the funds are automatically transferred from the treasury to the developer's wallet; otherwise, they remain in the treasury. Since these contracts are public and immutable, everyone knows the rules before joining, and after deployment, they run automatically and cannot be easily altered, which is what makes the smart contract the law governing the DAO.
Most DAOs maintain a treasury designated for development. These funds are typically raised through token sales or community donations. To use these funds, members must submit a corresponding proposal. This is where governance comes into play: holders of native DAO tokens have the right to vote on these proposals, and the more tokens they hold, the greater their voting weight.
Membership in a crypto-DAO is determined not by passing an interview but by ownership and contribution. There are two primary ways to gain a place in the community. The token-based model is the most common: holding a token grants voting rights in the project. By purchasing cryptocurrency, such as Uniswap, on an exchange, a person automatically becomes a DAO member. As a DAO member, one can participate in voting on how the project will spend funds or what it should work on next. This model features high liquidity, allowing one to leave the project simply by selling the tokens if the direction of activity is unsatisfactory.
Another option is stake- and reputation-based membership. Stake-based DAOs resemble private clubs: joining usually requires submitting a proposal and contributing capital or labor, after which other members vote on acceptance. Reputation-based DAOs grant voting rights based on actual contribution to the project, preventing large investors (whales) from dominating decision-making.
To better understand DAOs, it is useful to compare them with traditional organizations. DAOs were created to change the operating principles of traditional structures. Corporations utilize a top-down decision-making system, whereas in a DAO, the process flows bottom-up, originating from the community.
Although DAOs are transforming business, they have their pros and cons. Among the advantages is transparency: all transactions and governance decisions are recorded on the blockchain, allowing anyone to independently verify every action in real time. Decentralization is also important, as it distributes power among members and reduces single points of failure.
Other benefits include global participation, accessible to anyone with internet access, automatic rule execution via smart contracts, which reduces administrative overhead, and community ownership, which ensures direct member involvement in decisions and increases a sense of shared responsibility.
However, there are disadvantages. Smart contract risks can lead to irreversible financial losses if errors are discovered. Furthermore, decisions in DAOs are often made slower due to the necessity of all participants voting. Legal uncertainty across different jurisdictions also poses a risk to participants and developers. Finally, the dominance of large token holders can allow them to significantly influence the market.
The barrier to entry for DAOs has proven surprisingly low. To start, one needs to find an area of interest (such as DeFi or NFTs), acquire a crypto wallet (like MetaMask or Phantom), and purchase the necessary governance tokens. Most DAOs conduct daily discussions on Discord or Telegram, where one can learn about the entire community. Following this, one should monitor active proposals and vote on them on platforms like Snapshot.
The Decentralized Autonomous Organization offers a glimpse into a more democratic and transparent world within the evolving landscape of finance and labor. Although we are in the early stages of DAO development, the potential for them to revolutionize venture capital and social clubs is already evident. Understanding DAOs is the first step toward the future of the internet (Web3), returning power to people amidst growing centralization.
